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A short summary of this paper. Download Download PDF. Translate PDF. Download with Google Download with Facebook or download with email. Analytical Chemistry 7e by Gary D. Christian Analytical Chemistry 7e by Gary D. Christian Rayhan The following papers from the history of chemistry are available as html files.
Many are seminal papers in their fields. Some are interesting curiosities. Free Download Chemistry Books Chemistry. Is this end point close enough to the equivalence point that the titration error may be safely ignored? To answer this question we need to know how the pH changes during the titration. A titration curve provides us with a visual picture of how a property, such as pH, changes as we add titrant. We can measure this titration curve experimentally by suspending a pH electrode in the solution containing the analyte, monitoring the pH as titrant is added.
We can also calculate the expected titration curve by considering the reactions responsible for the change in pH. However we arrive at the titration curve, we may use it to evaluate an indicator's likely titration error. For example, the titration curve in the above figure shows us that an end point pH of 6. Stopping the titration at an end point pH of A titration curve is a plot of reagent volume added versus some function of the analyte concentration.
Volume of added reagent is generally plotted on the x axis. The measured parameter that is a function of analyte concentration is plotted on the y axis. Analytical Chemistry Lecture Notes ……………………………………………………………… 11 Two general titration curve types are seen: 1. Sigmoidal curve - a "z" or "s"-shaped curve where the y axis is a p-function of the analyte or the reagent reacted with the analyte during titration or the potential of an ion-specific electrode.
The equivalent point is observed in the middle of the "middle" segment of the "z" or "s. Linear-segment curve - a curve generally consisting of two line segments that intersect at an angle. Analytical Chemistry Lecture Notes ……………………………………………………………… 12 Applications of Titrimetry in Pharmaceutical Analysis Titrimetric methods are still widely used in pharmaceutical analysis because of their robustness, cheapness and capability for high precision.
The only requirement of an analytical method that they lack is specificity. Suppliers of raw materials may provide these materials at a specified purity which has been assayed titrimetrically to a pharmacopoeial standard. Typical instrumentation for performing an automatic titration automatic titrator. Analytical Chemistry Lecture Notes ……………………………………………………………… 13 Titrations Based on Acid-Base Reactions The earliest acid-base titrations involved the determination of the acidity or alkalinity of solutions, and the purity of carbonates and alkaline earth oxides.
Various acid-base titration reactions, including a number of scenarios of base in the burette, acid in the reaction flask, and vice versa, as well as various monoprotic and polyprotic acids titrated with strong bases and various weak monobasic and polybasic bases titrated with strong acids. A monoprotic acid is an acid that has only one hydrogen ion or proton to donate per fomula.
A polyprotic acid is an acid that has two or more hydrogen ions to donate per formula. Examples include sulfuric acid, H2S04, a diprotic acid, and phosphoric acid, H3P04, a triprotic acid.
A monobasic base is one that will accept just one hydrogen ion per formula. A polybasic base is one that will accept two or more hydrogen ions per formula. Examples include sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, a dibasic base, and sodium phosphate, Na3P04, a tribasic base. For an acid-base titration, the equivalence point is characterized by a pH level that is a function of the acid-base strengths and concentrations of the analyte and titrant.
The pH at the end point, however, may or may not correspond to the pH at the equivalence point. To understand the relationship between end points and equivalence points we must know how the pH changes during a titration.
In this section we will learn how to construct titration curves for several important types of acid-base titrations. Initially the solution is 0. Since this is such a large value we can treat reaction as though it goes to completion. After adding Since neither the acid nor the base is in excess, the pH is determined by the dissociation of water.
Finally, for volumes of NaOH greater than the equivalence point volume, the pH is determined by the concentration of excess OH—. For example, after adding Analytical Chemistry Lecture Notes ……………………………………………………………… 15 The table and the figure below show additional results for this titration curve. Data for Titration of Adding NaOH converts a portion of the acetic acid to its conjugate base. As we learned before, we can calculate the pH of a buffer using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.
Analytical Chemistry Lecture Notes ……………………………………………………………… 17 At the equivalence point, the moles of acetic acid initially present and the moles of NaOH added are identical. Since their reaction effectively proceeds to completion, the predominate ion in solution is CH3COO—, which is a weak base. After the equivalence point NaOH is present in excess, and the pH is determined in the same manner as in the titration of a strong acid with a strong base.
The table and figure below show additional results for this titration. The calculations for the titration of a weak base with a strong acid are handled in a similar manner except that the initial pH is determined by the weak base, the pH at the equivalence point by its conjugate weak acid, and the pH after the equivalence point by the concentration of excess strong acid. Analytical Chemistry Lectures Notes …………………………………………………….
A reaction in which the analyte and titrant form an insoluble precipitate also can form the basis for a titration. We call this type of titration a precipitation titration. One of the earliest precipitation titrations, developed at the end of the eighteenth century, was for the analysis of K2CO3 and K2SO4 in potash. Calcium nitrate, Ca N03 2, was used as a titrant, forming a precipitate of CaCO3 and CaSO4 The end point was signaled by noting when the addition of titrant ceased to generate additional precipitate.
Precipitation Reactions A precipitation reaction occurs when two or more soluble species combine to form an insoluble product that we call a precipitate. The most common precipitation reaction is a metathesis reaction, in which two soluble ionic compounds exchange parts. When a solution of lead nitrate is added to a solution of potassium chloride, for example, a precipitate of lead chloride forms. We usually write the balanced reaction as a net ionic equation, in which only the precipitate and those ions involved in the reaction are included.
Titration Curves The titration curve for a precipitation titration follows the change in either the analyte's or titrant's concentration as a function of the volume of titrant. As we have done with previous titrations, we first show how to calculate the titration curve.
Calculating the Titration Curve As an example, let's calculate the titration curve for the titration of By now you are familiar with our approach to calculating titration curves.
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